HOW TO SETUP DIRECTORIES IN C / C++

Hello Everyone,


If you are new to C language than you might have encounter an error while executing your program, even though the code is correct but you are still unable to execute it, and you receive errors something like this.

this error indicates that the compiler is unable to locate the header files on the specified path. So in order to rectify this error we need to setup correct directory setting


1. First make sure that the path of C is like this


X:\TC      (Where X can be any partition of you hard disk, lets assume it is your C drive)


so the path is C:\TC


Now open your C language by going to C:\TC\BIN\TC.exe


2. In the menu bar Click on Options and than click on Directories

When you click on Directories a window will be open like this

On this window we have to give correct path


Like we assumed that TC is located in our C partition


So the correct path would be


For Include         C:\TC\INCLUDE


For Library         C:\TC\LIB


For Output          C:\TC\BIN


3. After setting the directories Click on OK


We have successfully setup the directories, and you should be able to execute you code without any error. If you are still unable to execute it or receiving some other errors please post on comment.

DATABASE NORMALIZATION

In this post I am going to talk about normalization. No matter at what is the professional age of a software engineer he has to know about database concepts and normalization is one if those important concept. And when it comes to giving interview, I bet every software engineer search internet to revise the concepts regarding normalization and same is the case with me.

So decide to write a post on normalization and dedicate it people who want to give interview. So what is normalization?

Normalization – It is the method of breaking down complex table structures in to simple table structures by using certain rules in order to reduce redundancy in a table and eliminate inconsistency problems and disk space usage.

OR

It is a process of elimination of duplication from the set of data and transforms it into specifically identifiable objects.

Benefits from normalization – following are the benefits of normalizing database.

• Avoiding repetitive entries

• Reducing required storage space

• Preventing the need to restructure existing tables to accommodate new data.

• Increased speed and flexibility of queries, sorts, and summaries

There are five stages of normalization from 1^st NF to 5^th NF. It has been seen that 1^st and 2^nd normal forms are used extensively and 3^rd normal form is used only when it is needed. 4^th and 5^th normal are generally for academics and as far as there usage is concern they cause performance problems.

First normal form (1^st NF) – A table is in first normal form (1NF) if all underlying domains contain atomic values only. So what does atomic values means?

Atomic Values – In most general sense, ‘Atomic’ means anything which has one value. It means each column in a tuple must have one and only one value, it should not be multi valued. To understand this lets look into following example:

Example # 1

Table: Customer

CustomerId	Name	Address	PhoneNumber	Postal Code	Area	City	Province
1	Ali Raza	ABC Society	0345-6687675 0300-6421665 0321-4509861	74600	Defence	Islamabad	Sindh
2	Asif Fattah	XYZ Society	0333-2721835 0321-2125367	45240	Gulberg	Haiderabad	Punjab

In the above example column PhoneNumber does not have atomic values because it has multiple values and because of this column, Customer table is not in the 1^st NF. To make this table satisfy 1^st NF PhoneNumber column must be placed in a separate table and reference it via foreign key, like I have done in the following example:

Table: Customer

CustomerId	First Name	Last Name	Address	Postal Code	Area	City	Province
1	Ali	Raza	ABC Society	74600	Defence	Islamabad	Sindh
2	Asif	Fattah	XYZ Society	45240	Gulberg	Haiderabad	Punjab

Table: CustomerPhoneNo

CustomerId	PhoneNumber
2	0333-2721835
2	0321-2125367
1	0321-4509861
1	0300-6421665
1	0345-6687675

Example # 2

Table: Meeting

MeetingId	Date	Attendee
123	1/2/2009	Ali, Asif, Asad

In the above example Attendees is multivalve column. To apply 1^st NF on this table Attendee column should move in a separate table like I’ve done below:

 Table: Meeting

MeetingId	Date
123	1/2/2009

Table: MeetingAttendee

MeetingId	Attendee
123	Ali
123	Asif
123	Asad

If we have a look of above example it can be figured out that each tuple (row) in Meeting table can have zero/one or many rows in MeetingAttendee table against it and in MeetingAttendee table one or many rows must have one and only one tuple (row) in Meeting table against it.

So, we can say that 1^st NF requires to put multi valued column in separate and connect them by making one-to-many relationship.

Second normal form (2^nd NF) – An entity is in second normal form (2^nd NF) if it fulfill the requirement of 1^st NF + (entity who does not have combinatorial key or composite key, all none key elements should be fully dependent on primary key)

Combinatorial Key or Composite Key – key consisted on more than one field is called combinatorial key or Composite Key.

Example # 1

Table: Student

StudentId (pk)	CourseId (pk)	CourseName	StudentName	Address	PhoneNumber
1	1	C++	Ali	ABC Society	0345-6687675 0300-6421665 0321-4509861
2	2	Applied Calculus	Asif	XYZ Society	0333-2721835 0321-2125367

In the above example studentId and CourseId both are primary keys means they are making combinatorial key.  It is obvious from the Student table that not all the fields are completely dependent on StudentId or CourseId. We can figure out that there are two entities stored in one table. To make the Student table satisfy 2^nd NF we need to break combinatorial key and put the information dependent on CourseId field in another table let’s say in Course table.

Table: Student

StudentId (pk)	CourseId (fk)	StudentName	Address	PhoneNumber
1	1	Ali	ABC Society	0345-6687675 0300-6421665 0321-4509861
2	2	Asif	XYZ Society	0333-2721835 0321-2125367

Table: Course

CourseId (pk)	CourseName
1	C++
2	Applied Calculus

Table: CustomerPhoneNo

CustomerId(fk)	PhoneNumber
2	0333-2721835
2	0321-2125367
1	0321-4509861
1	0300-6421665
1	0345-6687675

So we can say that 2^nd NF requires putting multi valued attributes in separate table.

Third normal form (3^rd NF) – An entity is in third normal form (3^rd  NF) if it fulfill the requirement of 2^nd NF + (all non key element must be functionally dependent on primary key)

Functionally dependent – it means all non key elements must be dependent on primary key.

Example # 1

Table: Customer

CustomerId	Name	Address	Postal Code	Area	City	Province
1	Ali	ABC Society	74600	Nazimabad	Karachi	Sindh
2	Asif	XYZ Society	45240	Sanda	Lahore	Punjab
3	John	DEF society	74600	North Nazimabad	Karachi	Sindh

In the above example City and Province are dependent on Postal Code, both of these fields are not dependent on CustomerId (Primary Key), so to apply 3^rd NF on this table we can put City and Country in a separate table and connect both tables via Postal Code field.

If we look it in other perspective we are separating our static data and minimizing storage. Area, City and Country is static data and for each postal code it will remain same (hear I am assuming that postal code is unique for each area in the city).

 Table: Customer

CustomerId	Name	Address	Postal Code
1	Ali	ABC Society	74600
2	Asif	XYZ Society	45240
3	John	DEF society	74600

Table: PostalCode

Postal Code	Area	City	Province
74600	Nazimabad	Karachi	Sindh
45240	Sanda	Lahore	Punjab

So we can say that 3^rd form of normalization is about moving that data into other table that is functionally dependent on some other field rather than primary key.I have described the process of normalization in the sequence of 1^st, 2^nd, and 3^rd phase, however; the order of these phases is not that important most of the times. The reason is while designing database the entities are already in 1^st or 2^nd NF. So you don’t need to apply 1^st or 2^nd NF. So the rule of thumb is that remember the rules of normalization instead of getting confuse with sequence.